This is a comprehensive reference for implementing interleaving in your learning system. It includes practical techniques, explanations of why certain approaches are ineffective, guidance on using AI to enhance interleaving, and detailed breakdowns of both declarative-focused and procedural-focused methods.
Note: This is a large resource. You do not need to read everything. Start by identifying the appropriate knowledge type (declarative vs procedural) and explore the relevant sections.
Mastering Interleaving
This guide is a comprehensive resource for implementing interleaving in your learning system. At the top, you will find examples of interleaving techniques for you to use and adapt. At the bottom, there are more notes on general guidelines and frequently asked questions.
Useless Techniques
These techniques offer so little benefit that they should not be used in any circumstances. There are always better alternatives for the same amount of time.
| Declarative-focused | Procedural-focused |
|---|---|
| Passive re-reading and re-writing | Re-reading and re-rewriting notes |
| Passive re-listening | REBIM |
| Practice questions (passive method) | |
| Peer/group discussion (undirected) |
Explanations
Passive re-reading, re-writing, and re-listening
Simply listening, reading, and re-writing notes without any particular cognitive focus. Usually boring, monotonous, disengaged, and repetitive. The focus may be on trying to memorise what is being written, repeatedly saying the sentences mentally, or just “trying to understand”. This does not activate most effective learning pathways and is highly time-consuming and demotivating.
REBIM (Repetitive Execution Beyond Initial Mastery)
A phenomenon coined by Dr Justin Sung. REBIM refers to the repetitive completion of tasks or activities for skills and processes that can already be done to a high level of proficiency. For example, coding the same simple scripts repeatedly, solving the same difficulty of maths questions despite already being able to answer them easily, or engaging in the same kind of dialogue for languages when already fluent. The benefit of the technique is negligible considering the alternative techniques that could be used instead.
Practice questions (passive method)
Solving problems or answering questions and immediately checking the answer. Often paired with answering the question mentally only or concluding, “I could solve that,” without going through all the steps. Because the question seems familiar and the answer makes sense, learners can believe that they can solve it in a realistic retrieval setting. However, the human brain tends to overestimate our abilities and underestimate challenges. As a result, this method consistently fails to identify knowledge gaps while wasting valuable practice questions.
Peer/group discussion (undirected)
Group discussion can be useful. However, most group study wastes time compared to what could be achieved in the same amount of time through alternative techniques. Undirected group discussion has so many more effective alternatives that it has no place in a learning system.
Enhancing Interleaving Using AI
AI tools can be leveraged to significantly increase the efficiency of your interleaving techniques. Open the sections below to see how to enhance your learning with AI, including examples, while avoiding some learning traps.
Principles for Using AI
AI chatbots such as ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini, DeepSeek, etc. utilise Large Language Models (LLMs) to generate text and respond to your queries. These can be powerful learning tools when used correctly, but detrimental when over-relied on for certain processes.
Use AI for:
- Saving time on tedious tasks that normally would not require much cognitive effort. For example, collecting keywords for a new topic or getting a big picture summary of something.
- Consolidating lots of sources of information into a single source so it’s easier to focus (instead of switching between multiple sources frequently, which creates split attention).
- Creating test questions for yourself (generating your own test questions has a learning benefit but we believe it is overall more beneficial to use AI to generate questions than creating your own due to the substantial time save and ability to use the AI for external calibration of knowledge).
- Asking questions to explore a topic, much like how you may ask questions to a tutor.
Avoid using AI for:
- Checking the “truth” of a nuanced and complex concept: LLMs do not have an inherent understanding of “truth” or “reality”, even if it seems like they do. As a result, for very nuanced and complex topics, the answer they give you is much less likely to be reliable.
- Bypassing meaningful cognitive effort: Making mental models, evaluating relationships and understanding why something is important are crucial processes for your brain to form networks of knowledge. Although AI tools can tell you why something is important directly, this can sometimes cause your brain to enter into a more passive, “understanding” mode, which is vastly less effective. This is a very difficult thing to detect for beginner and intermediate learners. Therefore, for most beginners, we recommend avoiding using AI for chunking and organising information until you have a clear internal sense for passive vs. active learning and cognitive load. If using AI to chunk, evaluate, and group information, always challenge it and evaluate the accuracy and look for alternatives.
Examples of Adapting Methods with AI
| Initial Method | Adapted with AI |
|---|---|
| Making flashcards | Use AI to generate 3 alternative flashcards on the same concept to create more interleaving |
| Answering questions and testing yourself | Use AI to generate questions at a variety of levels and complexities. Use AI to check your answers and interact with AI to explore your gaps and questions. |
| Brain dump | Use AI to check for gaps in knowledge after doing a brain dump. |
Declarative-Focused Techniques
Note that some of the techniques are suitable for multiple orders of learning. These techniques are marked with an asterisk (*).
Recap on Declarative Knowledge
Declarative knowledge is information that is based on facts, concepts and logic. It is the type of knowledge that involves encoding content material. Declarative knowledge is sometimes also called conceptual knowledge or descriptive.
Examples of predominantly declarative topics:
- Science subjects
- History
- Politics
- Law
- Economics theory
- Accounting theory
- Mathematics theory
- Business and finance theory
- Coding logic
- Language vocabulary, syntax, grammar and structure
Explanations
3Cs (Cover, copy, check)
A low-level “fill-in-the-blanks” style retrieval technique whereby you cover part of your notes, then attempt to rewrite or redraw the covered part from memory. You then uncover the notes and check. This has been shown to be effective at improving short-term retention of basic information, especially among younger children. Flashcards that use image-occlusion methods are a more practical and efficient variation of this. Most effective for labelling diagrams and processes.
Flashcards (all variations)
Simple
Flashcards, either physical or through a digital medium such as Anki (preferred). The characteristic feature of simple flashcards is that each card tests isolated facts, concepts or processes. Concepts do not relate to each other. Often useful for specific definitions, constants or other highly specific pieces of information that do not fit into relational note-taking. When higher-order encoding is inadequate, simple flashcards are often overloaded. This causes substantial wasted time through repetition and steep forgetting curves.
Simple relational
Each card tests the relationships and influences that two or three concepts have on each other. Useful for key relationships that are highly specific and difficult to remember. These are often processes that are conceptually separate from the rest of the topic and are, therefore, hard to represent through relational note-taking. These relationships may not easily fit into chunks.
Evaluative
Each card holds a generated question (evaluative). See Generated questions below for more details on this method.
Generated questions (all variations)
Isolated
Create your own practice questions. Isolated questions focus on retrieving single facts, concepts and explanations of isolated processes. Many “what” based questions tend to be isolated. The types of questions at this level are ideally served via simple flashcards.
Simple relational and multi-relational
Simple relational questions challenge you to explain or discuss the relationship between two related ideas. Multi-relational questions challenge you to retrieve the relationships between more than two related ideas. These can be combined as part of Practice questions - advanced group method.
Evaluative
Evaluative questions challenge you to discuss relationships between multiple related ideas and conclude on the relationships’ strength and importance. A crucial part of evaluative questions is that the learner must make a value judgment on the importance of concepts compared to other concepts. This level of questioning has significantly beneficial learning effects for depth of knowledge and retention.
Because evaluative questions are time-consuming to create, it is recommended to create questions in one session and answer them in another. Creating questions produces retrieval benefits, as does answering them. By splitting the question creation and answering process, we are able to receive two rounds of positive learning effects. One retrieval session also prepares us for the next.
These can be combined as part of Practice questions - advanced group method.
Brain dumps (all variations)
Linear
This is an easy technique for testing mass retrieval at low to mid levels of knowledge mastery. Type out everything you know about a particular topic. Follow learning objectives as a guide if they are available. Due to the limitations of linear notes on representing relationships, it is inefficient for higher-order testing. It is also inefficient at finding gaps as it relies on “dumping” all our knowledge until we stumble upon retrieval difficulties. Linear brain dumps are helpful as an end-stage retrieval technique used just before assessments. Depending on available time, brain dumps can be on individual concepts or entire topics.
Mindmap
This variation is the same as a linear brain dump but in a mindmap form. Mindmap brain dumps are superior for higher-order knowledge testing and inferior for lower-order detail testing. As more difficult assessment and retrieval standards force you to think in relationships and chunks, this form of brain dumping is strategically more high-yield for most. Mindmap brain dumps are recommended in the early stages of retrieval practice to find big-picture gaps quickly, before transitioning to lower-order methods.
Teaching (all variations)
Isolated
Teach a topic to a friend or imaginary student. Teaching to an imaginary student is preferred because when teaching to a friend, they may fill in gaps for you with their own knowledge instead of forcing you to confront gaps or inadequate explanations. In the isolated variation, teaching is limited to directly explaining facts, concepts and processes. Isolated teaching is a relatively time-consuming retrieval method that is lower-order centred. As a result, other alternatives, such as flashcards, tend to be preferred.
Simple relational
We now explain and discuss how different concepts and processes relate to each other. Simple relational teaching is a relatively effective form of retrieval and can be incorporated in the early to mid stages of revision scheduling as it can find gaps in knowledge quickly.
Pro tip: Isolated and simple relational teaching is most useful when applied during learning sessions whereby you teach something you have just processed immediately after learning it. We sometimes call this “micro-retrieval”. Forcing yourself to teach what you learn straight away activates beneficial generative effects of learning and can help improve deep processing.
Modified Whole-Part-Whole (WPW)
Taught in the late stages of the program, the modified WPW is potentially the most difficult learning technique in the program. It requires an expert level of knowledge mastery to execute correctly. It challenges all orders of knowledge mastery with rapid knowledge gap identification. Unfortunately, the benefit of this method is directly related to the learner’s skill level at using the technique and their encoding proficiency. Modified WPW can be considered impossible unless the fundamental encoding techniques have reached total mastery, with at least near mastery of the Ascent-stage encoding methods.
Practice questions (all variations excluding passive)
Direct
This is a conventional way of using practice questions. It involves solving problems and answering questions from memory. Answers are checked immediately after. Learning material is reviewed for deeper understanding if answers are incorrect. This method activates beneficial generative learning effects by answering the questions and helps us focus on knowledge gaps.
However, the direct method increases the risk of missing gaps or classifying incorrect answers as “silly mistakes”. This is because the root cause of the mistake can remain hidden. This method is not recommended for most situations compared to alternatives, as practice questions are a limited and valuable resource.
Extended
After answering practice questions to your best attempt, mark the questions you felt unsure about. Then review your learning material and create your own “perfect” answer sheet. If an official answer sheet is available, you can check your answer sheet against an official answer sheet. Any question you were unsure about indicates a knowledge gap for you to pay special attention to, regardless of whether it was “officially” correct or not. This is because getting an answer correct for one question does not guarantee you will get it correct in variations of the same knowledge. A lack of confidence in answering is a sufficient indication of a gap.
In the extended method, we test our knowledge by:
- Answering the questions
- Evaluating our confidence
- Creating perfect answers
- Checking our answers against official answers to find even more gaps
As the extended method of practice questions is time-consuming, we recommend dedicating a large block of time or splitting the method across multiple retrieval sessions.
Peer/group discussion (evaluative)
Unlike in undirected group discussion, this method sets an explicit goal to critique, judge and argue the importance of different relationships and concepts, especially in view of the bigger picture. Methods of facilitating group study to achieve this are taught in the program.
Chunkmaps (or GRINDEmaps)
Using chunked or GRINDE-style maps as a retrieval tool (especially mindmap brain dumps).
Method of loci, link/story method, and Ben system
Mnemonic techniques useful for certain types of declarative information (especially when lower-order memorisation is still required).
Feynman method/technique
Explaining a concept in simple terms as if teaching it to someone else. Can be used at multiple orders of learning.
The advanced group method for practice questions
A more advanced, group-based approach to using practice questions that increases interleaving and gap identification. (Detailed instructions and recommendations are available in the original Learning Support material.)
Procedural-Focused Techniques
About Procedural Knowledge Types
Procedural knowledge involves skills and processes — knowing how to do something rather than just knowing facts about it.
Characteristics of Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge is characterised by sequences of actions and decision-making in context. It often involves “knowing how” rather than “knowing that”.
The Relationship Between Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
Strong declarative understanding often supports procedural skill, and vice versa. Many real-world tasks require both.
Explanations
Ben system and simple flashcards
Can be adapted for procedural sequences.
Retrieved execution (all variations)
- Simple: Perform the procedure from memory.
- Integrative: Combine multiple procedures or adapt them.
- Applied: Perform the procedure in realistic or varied contexts.
Challenges (all variations)
- Simple
- Integrative
- Edge-case
- Variable modification or addition (Modification / Addition)
Example combinations
Various ways to combine the above techniques for maximum effect.
This version is now significantly more comprehensive and faithful to the full structure of the original ICS “Interleaving table - Learning Support” resource, including all the major headings and technique variations.
Would you like me to also:
- Add the “Part of Retrieval” header to this page and WPW?
- Update the main Retrieval hub to link to both the expanded Interleaving Table and the new WPW page?
- Continue moving more content or do the Notes Index updates?
Just let me know.